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		 -- Monday, April 23, 1979 17:42:44 --

   869 23 Apr  Rick at Rand-Unix     ection for paper
   870 23 Apr  Klahr at Rand-Unix    References


869 -- ************************
Mail from RAND-UNIX rcvd at 23-Apr-79 1523-PST
From: Rick at Rand-Unix
Date: 23 Apr 1979 at 1523-PST
To: Klahr at Rand-Unix
cc: lenat at Aim, Rick at Rand-Unix
Subject:section for paper

Doug & Phil:
    The following material should be used in the draft in the section on
caching where it calls for contrast with psychological ideas of economy.
DOug may want to add in a sentence about KRL's view or some others.


---------------

    When semantic networks first appeared in cognitive psychology, they
led to the idea that function should follow form.  In particular,
since taxonomic knowledge structures were hierarchical, inference
processes would presumably follow the same inter-category network paths
each time the corresponding relation needed testing.  It was for this
reason that Collins & Quillian (1969, 1972) conjectured
that the time required to verify semantic relations would correlate with
distance in a corresponding "economical" semantic network.  Thus, they
showed that people ordinarily verified "a canary is a bird" faster than
they could verify either of the two more remote relationships,
"a canary is an animal" or "a canary has wings."

    Subsequent research however showed that the needs of
particular retrieval experiences,
not a priori categorizations, determined which inference paths humans would
follow and the associated response times.
A simple counterexample to the presumed hierarchical
retrieval schemes was found by Rips, Shoben and Smith (1973).  They showed
that people access a familiar  but so-called "indirect"
relation such as "a dog is an animal"
much faster than the supposedly immediate but less frequent
relation "a dog is a mammal."
Using experimental materials and methods, Hayes-Roth & Hayes-Roth (1975)
found that human memory seemed plastic and adaptive in many of the same ways
we have proposed for intelligent machine programs.  Their results led them
to "an adaptive model of memory, in which all learned relations are
represented directly, with strength proportional to experience.  There is
also good evidence for redundancy in the network, with multiple routes
connecting nodes representing particular pairs of concepts" (p. 519, 1975).

    In another study, Hayes-Roth and Hayes-Roth found evidence
that people understand and remember English texts directly in terms
of high-level lexical concepts, rather than low-level or primitive
concepts.  They argued that cognitive processes would presumably
benefit if they could build directly upon the words or other meaningful
units of familiar language.  Any system that needed to interpret and
store data in terms of primitive units, as is often assumed in
language understanding theories, would encounter many slower and costlier
searches.  Both the empirical evidence and theoretical principles support
the idea that human language understanding exploits many kinds of caching.

    In short, we have chosen the term caching to refer to these types of
redundant storage.  Caching, to capture and exploit repetition and
regularity, will benefit both humans and machines of limited processing
capabilities.


870 -- ************************
Mail from RAND-UNIX rcvd at 23-Apr-79 1624-PST
From: Klahr at Rand-Unix
Date: 23 Apr 1979 at 1625-PST
Message-ID: <59.293761536@Rand-Unix>
To: lenat at sumex-aim
cc: klahr, rick
Subject: References

Doug,

    Here are the references.  They include Rick's recent references for the
additional section he just sent you. (This section should be inserted in the
paper which I sent you this morning.)

In Acknowledgments: "This research was supported in part by the National
Science Foundation under grant MCS77-03273."

A couple questions:
	I put in two references for Burstall & Darlington -- do you want
		both; verify several references to them in paper.
	PSI references:  are they the ones you want?
		Green, 1977; Green & Barstow, 1978; Barstow, 1977; Kant, 1977
	I used your thesis for AM reference -- you may want to add your
		IJCAI-77 and PDIS papers.

Yell if there's anything else you need.
					Phil
------------------------------------------

I could not find following references:

EMYCIN

Knuth

Musgrave & Lakatos

Kahn, Kevin (can't find in IJCAI)

Eurisko

Balzer - airline system

Cray

Bobrow's resource limited computation

-------------------------------------------

Adams, J. L.
Conceptual Blockbusting.
W.H. Freeman: San Francisco, 1974.

Anderson, R. H. and Gillogly, J. J.  Rand intelligent terminal agent
(RITA):  design philosophy.  R-1809-ARPA, The Rand Corporation,
Santa Monica, Calif., 1976.

Balzer, R., Goldman, N., and Wile, D.  Informality in program
specifications.
Proc. of the 5th Int. Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence,
Cambridge, Mass., 1977, 389-397.

Barstow, D.  A knowledge-based system for automatic program
construction.
Proc. of the 5th Int. Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence,
Cambridge, Mass., 1977, 382-388.

Berliner, H. J.  Chess as problem solving: the developments of a tactics
analyzer, Ph.D. Dissertation, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, 1974.

Bobrow, D. G. and Raphael, B.  New programming languages for
artificial intelligence research.
Computing Surveys, 6,
1974, 153-174.

Bobrow, D. G. and Winograd, T.  An overview of KRL, a knowledge
representation language.
Cognitive Science, 1,
1977, 3-46.

Burstall, R. M. and Darlington, J.  A transformation system for
developing recursive programs.
Journal of the ACM, 24,
1977, 44-67.

Collins, A. M. and Quillian, M. R.  Retrieval time from semantic memory
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8,
1969, 240-247.

Collins, A. M. and Quillian, M. R.  How to make a language user.  In
E. Tulving and D. Donaldson (eds.),
Organization of Memory.
Academic Press: New York, 1972.

Conrad, C.  Cognitive economy in semantic memory.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 92,
1972, 149-154.

Darlington, J. and Burstall, R. M.  A system which automatically improves
programs.
Proc. of the 3th Int. Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence,
Stanford, Calif., 1973, 479-485.

Dijkstra, E. W.
A Discipline of Programming,
Prentice-Hall: Englewood Clifs, N.J., 1976.

Feigenbaum, E. A.  The art of artificial intelligence:  themes and
case studies of knowledge engineering.
Proc. of the 5th Int. Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence,
Cambridge, Mass., 1977, 1014-1029.

Fikes, R. E., Hart, P. E., and Nilsson, N. J.  Learning and executing
generalized robot plans.
Artificial Intelligence, 3,
1972, 251-288.

Fiksel, J. R. and Bower, G. H.  Question answering by a semantic
network of parallel automata.
Journal Math. Psych., 13,
1976, 1-45.

Gelernter, H.  Realization of a geometry-theorem proving machine.  In
E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman (eds.),
Computers and Thought,
McGraw-Hill: New York, 1963, 134-152.

Green, C.  A summary of the PSI program synthesis system.
Proc. of the 5th Int. Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence,
Cambridge, Mass., 1977, 380-381.

Green, C. and Barstow, D.  On program synthesis knowledge.
Artificial Intelligence, 10,
1978, 241-279.

Hayes-Roth, B. and Hayes-Roth, F.  Plasticity in memorial networks.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 14,
1975, 506-522.

Hayes-Roth, B. and Hayes-Roth, F.  The prominence of lexical information
in memory representations of meaning.  Journal of Verbal Learning
and Verbal Behavior, 16, 1977, 119-136.

Hayes-Roth, B. and Walker, C.  Configural effects in human memory.
Cognitive Science,
in press, 1979.

Hayes-Roth, F., Klahr, P., Burge, J., and Mostow, D. J.  Machine
methods for acquiring, learning, and applying knowledge.  P-6241,
The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif., 1978.

Hayes-Roth, F. and Lesser, V. R.  Focus of attention in the Hearsay-II
speech understanding system.
Proc. of the 5th Int. Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence,
Cambridge, Mass., 1977, 27-35.

Kant, E.  The selection of efficient implementations for a high level
language.
Proc. ACM SIGART-SIGPLAN Symp. on Artificial Intelligence and Programming
Languages,
SIGART Newsletter 64, 1977, 140-146.

Klahr, P.  Planning techniques for rule selection in deductive
question-answering.  In D. A. Waterman and F. Hayes-Roth (eds.),
Pattern-Directed Inference Systems.
Academic Press: New York, 1978.

Lakatos, I.
Proofs and Refutations.
Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1976.

Lenat, D. B.  Beings:  knowledge as interacting experts.
Proc. of the 4th Int. Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence,
Tbilisi, USSR, 1975, 126-133.

Lenat, D. B.  AM: an artificial intelligence approach to discovery in
mathematics as heuristic search.  Memo AIM-286, Stanford AI Lab, 1976.

Lesser, V. R. and Erman, L. D.  A retrospective view of the Hearsay-II
architecture.
Proc. of the 5th Int. Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence,
Cambridge, Mass., 1977, 790-800.

Low, J.  Automatic coding:  choice of data structures.  Memo AIM-242,
Stanford University, 1974.

Lowerre, B. and Reddy, D. R.  The Harpy system.  In W. Lea (ed.),
Recent Trends in Speech Recognition.
Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, N. J., in press.

McCarthy, J.  The advice taker.  In M. Minsky (ed.),
Semantic Information Processing.
MIT Press: Cambridge, Mass., 1968.

Mostow, J. and Hayes-Roth, F.  Machine-aided heuristic programming: a
paradigm for knowledge engineering.  N-1007-NSF, The Rand Corporation,
Santa Monica, Calif., 1979 (in preparation).

Newell, A., Shaw, J. C., and Simon, H. A.  Chess-playing programs
and the problem of complexity.  In E. A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman (eds.),
Computers and Thought.
McGraw-Hill: New York, 1963, 39-70.

Newell, A. and Simon, H.
Human Problem Solving.
Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1972.

Rips, L. J., Shobin, E. J., and Smith, E. E.  Semantic distance and
the verification of semantic relations.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12,
1973, 1-20.

Stefik, M.  An examination of a frame-structured representation system.
Memo HPP-78-13, Stanford University, 1978.

Waterman, D. A., Anderson, R. H., Hayes-Roth, F., Klahr, P., Martins, G. R.,
and Rosenschein, S.  Design of a rule-oriented system for implementing
expertise.  The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, 1979 (in preparation).

Waterman, D. A. and Hayes-Roth, F.
Pattern-Directed Inference Systems.
Academic Press: New York, 1978.